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2 - The Context of Land Cover Changes in Agriculture and Forestry
- from PART I - Setting up the Scenarios: Current Status and Potential Impacts of Climate Change to Philippine Agriculture
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- By David M. Wilson, Consultant at the World Agroforestry Centre., Rodel D. Lasco, Country Coordinator of the World Agroforestry Centre.
- Edited by Mark W. Rosegrant, Mercedita A. Sombilla
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- Book:
- The Future of Philippine Agriculture under a Changing Climate
- Published by:
- ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute
- Published online:
- 29 May 2019
- Print publication:
- 30 November 2018, pp 71-132
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Summary
The nexus between an increasing global population, the demand for food and the land on which it is cultivated, and emerging climate variability poses one of today's greatest societal challenges (Rudel et al. 2009). Understanding the dynamics and drivers of global land-use change is as important now as ever. As agricultural and pasture lands expand into remaining forests, previously fertile land is lost to desertification and intensified soil degradation. The latest report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fifth Assessment Report (IPCC-AR5) suggests that land-use change may also be responsible for as much as 24 per cent of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (IPCC 2014b). This poses challenges for decision-makers and farmers alike and requires a coordinated effort that balances the need to meet rising food demand with the protection of our fragile and depleted natural resource base. Underpinning this is the need for accurate information on global, regional, national, and subnational dynamics and drivers of land-use change. Increasingly, this needs to be viewed and considered through the lens of climate change.
A tension between two major land-use types — forests and agricultural land — also exists. Prevailing opinion is that expansion of agricultural land comes at the expense of forested areas; indeed, evidence exists suggesting this was, is, and most likely will continue to be one of the major drivers of forest loss and land-use change globally (Rudel et al. 2005; Chomitz 2006; Lambin and Meyfroidt 2011; Hosonuma et al. 2012). This is not necessarily the case in all countries, however, and local contexts are often more complex and ambiguous, as is discussed in this chapter focusing on the Philippines.
Agricultural lands and agroecosystems provide essential benefits to human society and, in addition to being crucial to subsistence and economic activity, are deeply embedded culturally. For developing nations, poorer, often smallholder farmers rely on agriculture to meet their daily needs, and as populations grow so too does demand for land. At the same time, forests also offer benefits to those dependent on their goods and services (who may also be smallholder farmers). Direct benefits such as food, fodder, and timber are obvious. Perhaps less tangible, but no less important, are trees and forests and the role they play in supporting agricultural activities such as micro-climatic regulation, soil nutrient cycling, and stabilization, as well as improving water retention.
4 - Payments for Ecological Services: Experiences in Carbon and Water Payments in the Philippines
- from Theme 1 - Sustainability Science for Resource Management and Policy
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- By Rodel D. Lasco, World Agroforestry Centre, Grace B. Villamor, World Agroforestry Centre
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- Book:
- Sustainability Science for Watershed Landscapes
- Published by:
- ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute
- Published online:
- 21 October 2015
- Print publication:
- 18 May 2010, pp 103-124
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Summary
ABSTRACT
There is a rising interest globally in payments for ecological services (PES) as a way of promoting sustainable development. In this paper, we share the experience of the Philippines in payments for carbon storage and watershed protection. There are several projects on carbon sequestration in varying stages of design and implementation, most of which are in the planning stage. The initial lessons regard the country's potential for carbon sequestration projects, the insufficiency of carbon payments to cover the full cost of plantation development, and the high transaction cost that have limited the participation of local residents. Payments for watershed protection were more advanced. Several projects, meanwhile, are ongoing. The value of water was more easily recognised at the local and national levels. However, most of the payments did not satisfy the requirements for full-fledged PES.
INTRODUCTION
There is a lot of interest in PES schemes around the world (Landell-Mills and Porras 2002). An environmental service payment or reward refers to compensation for service, merit or effort, and/or incentives for maintaining or enhancing environmental service functions received by the sellers or paid for by the buyers of the environmental service(s) (van Noordwijk 2005). It is a voluntary transaction in which a well-defined environmental service or a land use likely to secure that service) is “bought” by a (minimum of one) buyer from a (minimum of one) provider if and only if the provider continuously secures the provision of the service (conditionality) (Wunder 2005).
The compensation and incentives can be financial, social and moral. Compensation may be made in terms of direct payments, financial incentives, or payments in kind. The rewards and payments in kind may include the provision of infrastructure, market preference, planting materials, health and educational services, skills training, technical assistance, or other material benefits. Aside from indirect and direct monetary payments, rewards can take the form of land tenure security, which may also be considered an economic incentive. Social and moral incentives and rewards may address the non-material aspects of poverty, including the recognition and respect of the community, and personal satisfaction.
8 - Climate Change and Biodiversity in the Philippines: Potential Impacts and Adaptation Strategies
- from COUNTRY PERSPECTIVES
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- By Florencia B. Pulhin, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Rodel D. Lasco, University of the Philippines Los Baños
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- Book:
- Moving Forward
- Published by:
- ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute
- Published online:
- 21 October 2015
- Print publication:
- 10 February 2010, pp 141-164
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Summary
THE PHILIPPINES AND CLIMATE CHANGE
Physical and Ecological Features
The Philippines is an archipelagic country composed of 7,107 islands. It generally lies between 116° 40’ and 126° 34' E longitude, and 4° 40' and 21° 10' N latitude. It is bounded on the southwest by Borneo, on the north by Taiwan, on the south by Moluccas and Sulawesi, and on the east by Palau.
The Philippines covers a total of 30 M ha which is almost equally divided between forest lands (15.9 M ha) and alienable and disposable (A&D) lands (14.1 M ha). Of the classified forest lands, 7.2 M ha are forests, 4 M ha are open forests, 2.6 M ha are closed forests, 0.3 M ha are plantations, and 0.2 M ha are mangroves.
In terms of soil types, there are 11 general categories based on the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (UN FAO) classification. The categories are: cambisols, gleysols, fluvisols, arenosols, regosols, luvisols, acrisols, andosols, phaeozems, nitisols, and kastanozems. Acrisols and cambisols are the most common types of soil present in many areas of the country as they cover 12 M ha and 8 M ha, respectively.
Topography is varied in the Philippines. The highest point is in Mt. Apo, with an elevation of 2,954 m asl. Lowlands are located in Cagayan Valley and the central plains of Luzon, Cotabato, the Davao-Agusan valleys, and in Negros and Panay.
Based on rainfall distribution, there are four types of climate existing in the Philippines: Type I, Type II, Type III, and Type IV. Climatic Type I is characterized by two pronounced seasons (dry and wet). Climatic Type II has no dry season but has a very pronounced rainfall from November to January. Climatic Type III is somehow in between Climatic Types I and II but is more similar to the Type I climate. It has a relatively short dry season which lasts for one to three months only. In Type IV climate, rainfall is more or less evenly distributed throughout the year.
2 - Issues on Climate Change and Biodiversity in the Region
- from REGIONAL PERSPECTIVES AND CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES
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- By Rodel D. Lasco, University of the Philippines Los Baños
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- Book:
- Moving Forward
- Published by:
- ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute
- Published online:
- 21 October 2015
- Print publication:
- 10 February 2010, pp 11-30
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Summary
Climate change is fast becoming a present reality. The most recent IPCC (2007) report concludes that:
“…warming of the climate system is unequivocal, as is now evident from observations of increases in global average air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice, and [the] rising global average sea level… (Denman et al. 2007).”
Among the projected impacts of climate change is the loss of thousands of species, as well as changes in natural ecosystems. Indeed, climate change is a real threat to biodiversity. Globally, about 20-30 per cent of species will be at increasingly high risk of extinction, possibly by 2100, as global mean temperatures exceed 2-3°C above pre-industrial levels. Global uncertainty range from 10 to 40 per cent, but varies among regional biota from as low as 1 per cent to as high as 80 per cent (Fischlin et al. 2007).
The Millennium Ecosystems Assessment (2005) concluded that in the past 50 years, humans have changed ecosystems more rapidly and extensively than in any comparable period of time in history. These changes have been made mainly to meet the rapidly growing demands for food, fresh water, timber, fiber, and fuel. These changes have resulted in a substantial and largely irreversible loss in the diversity of life on earth. It is expected that climate change will exacerbate existing pressures on biodiversity resources.
The Southeast Asian region is among the few countries with the richest biodiversity resources in the world. Although occupying only 3 per cent of the world's total surface, 20 per cent of all known species live deep in its mountains, jungles, rivers, lakes, and seas. The tropical forests harbor 10 per cent of the world's floral diversity (Gitay et al. 2002). Three of the world's 17 mega diversity countries are in the region, particularly in Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines.
Southeast Asia also has seven of the world's 25 recognised biodiversity hotspots or areas that are known to be biologically rich but are under the greatest threat of destruction. There are more than 27,000 endemic species in the region.
12 - Biodiversity and Climate Change: Perspectives, Research Needs, and Institutions
- from CHALLENGES AND FUTURE ACTIONS
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- By Percy E. Sajise, Cornell University, Mariliza V. Ticsay, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Gil C. Saguiguit, Universite de Montpellier I France, Rodrigo U. Fuentes, University of the Philippines, Rodel D. Lasco, University of the Philippines Los Baños
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- Book:
- Moving Forward
- Published by:
- ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute
- Published online:
- 21 October 2015
- Print publication:
- 10 February 2010, pp 231-254
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Summary
TRENDS AND IMPLICATIONS
Climate change is no longer a prediction or a speculation. It is already taking place in many places around the world including Southeast Asia. Long-term data on temperature and sea levels in an archipelagic country like the Philippines, and a partly continental country like Thailand and Vietnam, as reported in the chapters on country perspectives, indicate an increasing trend over the years.
Precipitation patterns are less consistently perceived as increasing or decreasing in particular areas. A more worrisome concern is that the rate of change in climate may be faster than predicted, and the time to develop mitigating and adaptive strategies are running short as extreme weather conditions, associated with these changes, are becoming more prevalent.
Another dimension of this change is the element of scale, both in time and space, which needs to be understood more accurately in order for society to be adequately prepared to deal with the myriad of implications on both the social and natural components of the environment. For example, in a cross- cutting paper in this book, the concept of sustainagility, as a complement or even a form of sustainable strategy, was advanced. How will this take place? Under what conditions will sustainagility be adopted as a social and biological coping strategy for climate change?
The importance of biodiversity maintenance and deployment, as being both an adaptive and mitigation strategy for climate change, was proposed, and evidences were provided. At the same time, the negative impacts of climate change on biodiversity is a major threat which need to be seriously considered in formulating a local, national, regional, and global plan of action for coping with climate change.
The various chapters in this book also highlight the element of interconnectedness. The interconnectedness of the social parameters of poverty, loss of biodiversity, economy, and the increasing vulnerability to climate change; the interconnectedness of ecosystems in the landscape and the need for a holistic view and analysis of the various relationships between social and natural elements, which is needed to better understand the relationships between biodiversity and climate change;